Management and Organisational Learning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Management and Organisational Learning - Essay Example This is where the concept of learning organisation comes into the picture. That is, learning organisation facilitates continuous learning with the employees learning new things and perspectives, thus leading to the structured changing or transitioning of employees, departments and the organisations as a whole from a current state to a favourable future state. When this change shows positive results, organisations can extricate from tough situations and achieve success. A learning organization values challenges, promotes flexibility, innovation and creativity, treats mistakes as stepping stones of development and encourages individuals to think. Learning is carried out by implementing various practices. Some of the key practices are help people value the effects of their learning on their organizations, link individual performance with organizational performance, tie rewards to key measures of performance and importantly create structures and procedures that support the learning process. Thus, learning organisations or organisations which indulge in learning process will try to learn newer and optimal strategies to optimize the organisational functioning. Peter M Senge, an American scientist, is one of the profound business thinkers and author. He analyzed many organizations and its workings for many years at MIT and the resultant theories and concepts were brought out by Peter Senge in his 1990 book, The Fifth Discipline. In that book, he brought out many organizational theories particularly the ones related to leadership under the concept of ‘learning organization. According to Peter Senge (1990, p.3) learning organizations are, â€Å"Organizations where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of thinking are nurtured, where collective aspiration is set free,

Describe a political actors role in international public law Research Paper

Describe a political actors role in international public law - Research Paper Example At the same time, another best case scenario is approaching proper channels to punish as well as restraint the aggressors. So, if a nation or its leader or group of people indulges in violent activities, it has to be countered not through another cycle of violence, but through a sound legal approach. If a leader or certain individuals of a country initiate and indulge in violence or other criminal activities, they will have to be punished by the legal system, practiced in their country. However, some times, if that leader or individuals manipulate and negatively influence the domestic legal system in their favor, its purpose will be defeated. In that scenario only, the international legal system comes into the picture to rein that specific nation or leader or individuals. This positive avenue could also be blockaded, if they refuse to cooperate or being trialed under the international legal system. So, this paper will analyze the international legal systems, its effect on human right s and importantly on a country’s sovereignty with specific focus on United States of America (USA). Vestiges of multilateralism There are only few institutions which can be considered as the last vestiges of multilateralism in this unilateral leaning world. ... This legal order equates all the nations and disciplines the nations in all aspects especially human rights. Even while focusing on this multilateral perspective, there is also the other side of the coin, as certain countries are skeptical about this international legal order particularly United States of America. These countries abhor the participation of international institutions in their domestic affairs, and instead state that their local legal system is apt enough to handle those affairs. â€Å"†¦they hold that States remain the leading source of all international rules—the limiting factor that ensures that international relations are shaped, and remain anchored to, the politics of the sovereign state† (Held, 2002). Most countries of the world would not want or allow outside interference in the internal affairs of their country. Moreover, if it is a military form of intervention they will oppose it or even fight against it. â€Å"Few countries of the world, large or small, would agree to entrust their security or other vital national interests entirely to a multilateral institution† (Jayakumar, 2003). They will not trust the international institutions and would not allow them to mediate or put their citizens under trial or even prosecute them. Based on the leverage, nations give to these international institutions regarding their ‘internal affairs’, Held had formulated three models, classic sovereignty, liberal international sovereignty and cosmopolitan sovereignty. The model ‘classic sovereignty’ gives the countries a free reign regarding their internal affairs without outside interference, and so it is also the law of

Chemical Synthesis and Analysis of Seaweed

Chemical Synthesis and Analysis of Seaweed Chapter 1 Literature review 2015 Introduction Marine-microalgae are normally termed as seaweed belonging to the primitive family of non-flowering plant known as thallophyta (Fig 1). The sea plant lacks the leaves, stem and roots of true plants. The body of the seaweed is called the thallus named after the thallophyta. The flattened leaf portion of the microalgae is called the blade and its function is to increase the photosynthesizing surface area. Seaweeds are attached to the bottom by a root-like structure called a holdfast. Seaweeds are autotrophic which grows in the intertidal and sub-tidal region of the sea. Seaweeds grow abundantly where rocks and coral are present as substratum (Marine Fisheries information Services October-November 1998; Kaliaperumal et al., 2004). Figure 1: Shows the general structure of seaweed ( Thallophyta)( Reproduced from http://dtc.pima.edu/blc/183/03_183/03_183answers.html). Seaweed may be classified into two categories namely phaephyceae (Brown) and Rhodophyceae (Red). Seaweeds contain different types of phycolloids such as alginate, carrageenan, agarose and agar agar. Seaweed is mainly used in Asia as food, fodders, fertilizer and also as drugs in the pharmaceutical industry for its therapeutics properties (Marine Fisheries information Services, October-November, 1998). 1.1 Brown seaweed (Phaephyceae) Brown seaweed is found in the family of seaweed which is called the phaephyceae. The brown seaweed composition varies according to the species, throughout the year and between different habitats. Brown seaweed is composed mainly of carbohydrate such as alginate, laminaran, mannitol, fucoidan and small traces of cellulose as shown in Table 1. (Fasahati et al., 2012) Table1. Brown seaweed composition Component Base design dry weight (%) Used in simulation dry weight (%) Ash 23.63 25.48 Algin 27.78 27.78 Laminaran 16.67 18.52 Mannitol 14.81 14.81 Fucoidan 3.7 Cellulose 6.6 Protein 7.41 7.41 1.2 Alginate Alginate is a major structural biopolymer found in cell wall and intercellular matrix which provides mechanical strength in brown seaweed. Seaweeds containing alginate are called alginophyte (Yabur et al., 2006). In the natural environment, alginate exists as a mixture of potassium, calcium and sodium salt (Gomez et al., 2009). 1.2.1 Structure of alginate The structure differs from species, age and from different part of seaweed. Alginate consists of two monomers and is linked to each other alternately in a linear form. The monomers are namely ÃŽ ²-D-Mannuronate and ÃŽ ±-L-Guluronate in Fig 2(B) and 2(D) respectively. The acid form of mannuronate and guluronate, is mannuronic acid and guluronic acid (Fig 2(C)) respectively. Figure 2(A) depicts the structure of sodium alginate in a linear form. Alginate is the salt of alginic acid and its simplest formula is NaC6H7O6 in Fig 2(A) (Mahmood et al., 2009). . 2(A) 2(B) 2(C) 2(D) Figure 2: Repeat unit of (A) Sodium alginate (B) guluronate, (C) guluronic acid and (D) mannuronate (Falkeborg et al., 2014) The monomers are linked through carbon 1 and 4 and have sequences forming blocks of MM(Fig 3(A)), GG(Fig 3(A)) or GM blocks in Fig 3(A) (Arzate-Và ¡zquez et al., 2012, Morais et al., 2013). Mannuronates and guluronates both have carboxylic group on the carbon 5 of their respective structures (Falkeborg et al., 2014). (A) G G M M (B) G G M M GMMMMGGGGGGGMGMGMGMGMMMMG (C) MM blocks GG blocks MG blocks MM blocks Figure 3: (A) Alginate structure with G and M repeat units, (B) showing the repeat of G and M joined together (C) block fractions of alginate polymer (Yuemei Lin et al., 2010) 1.3 Species of brown seaweeds Alginate are commercially manufactured mainly from Laminaria hyperborea, Macrocystis pyrifera, Laminaria digitata, Ascophyllumnodosum, Laminaria japonica, Eclonia maxima, Lessonia nigrescens, Durvillea Antarctica, Turbinaria conoides, Turbianria ornata and Turbinaria decurrens, Sargassum, Turbinaria ,Hormophysa, Cystoseira and Sargassum sp (Bertagnolli et al.,2014; Chennubhotla et al., 2013; Kaliaperumal et al., 1974). 1.4 Extraction of alginate Gomez et al., (2009) described the pre-treatment and the extraction of alginate from brown seaweed. The seaweed was crushed and was added to water to moisten the latter. 0.1 N Hydrochloric acid was added to the sample and the solution was stirred in order to reach a pH value of 4. This process was continued for 15 min at room temperature and the supernatant was eliminated. The pre-treatment was carried out three times for each sample using 0.1 N Hydrochloric acid. The extraction was followed by the addition of the pre-treated solution to a beaker with 1 N sodium carbonate (pH of solution 10). The mixture was stirred mechanically for a period of 2 hours at a temperature of 60 oC. To the extracted solution a silicon based rock was added and was stirred for 15 minutes. The mixture was then centrifuged to obtain the sodium alginate supernatant. Sodium alginate can be purified using three different routes namely (i) Ethanol route, (ii) Hydrochloric acid route and (iii) Calcium chloride route as summarised in scheme 1. (i) Ethanol pathway The ethanol pathway was performed by the direct precipitation of sodium alginate using ethanol. The precipitate was washed then with ethanol under soxhlet condition for 100 hours to obtain the pure biopolymer which was dried under vacuum. (ii) Alginic pathway The extract alginate was mixed up with 1 N of HCl at room temperature under constant stirring for 1 hour at a pH of 1. To obtain the alginic acid, the mixture was separated by centrifugation by adding water and 1 N sodium carbonate. The mixture was left at room temperature under stirring for 1 hour in order to obtain the soluble form of sodium alginate. The polymer was precipitated by the addition of 1:1 volume ratio of ethanol by the method described in the ethanol pathway. (iii) Calcium chloride pathway To the extract of sodium alginate, 1 M calcium chloride was added and the precipitate was thoroughly washed with distilled water using a soxhlet for 64 hours. The mixture was agitated at room temperature and distilled water was then added followed by the addition of 1 N Hydrochloric acid until a pH 2 was reached. The alginic acid which is insoluble was separated from the supernatant by centrifugation and the insoluble alginic acid was washed with 0.05 N HCl and the solution were stirred at room temperature. The precipitation of alginate was obtained by the addition of Na2CO3 to obtain sodium alginate. The purified alginate was collected by the soxhlet as discussed in the ethanol pathway. Scheme1. Extraction of alginate (Gomez et al., 2009) 1.5 Yield of alginate The yield of alginate is being affected by different factors such as the species, age, period of harvest, temperature of extraction, extracted with either alkali or acid and on the content of alginate in brown seaweed also the size of alginate also affects the yield.(Fertah et al., 2014) Seaweeds that are grown in summer show a lower content of alginate in the branches and stems (15.1 %) and no trace of alginate in the receptacles (Bertagnolli et al., 2014). Sample SS size is 1mm and BS for 1mmoC (51.8 for SS and 44.01for BS) but an increase in temperature proved to have a drastic decrease in the yield shown in table 2 (Fertah et al., 2014). Table 2. Yield of alginate at different size sample and temperature Size 1mm Temperature /o C 25 40 60 25 40 60 Yield/% 38.33 51.8 43.2 35.28 44.01 40.2 There are up to 40% of alginate content in brown seaweed and the content of alginate depending species of brown algae can vary from 10 to 25% (Yabur et al., 2006). The period of collected of seaweed Sargassum filipendula have different yield of alginate. During fall, spring and summer the yield are 17.0  ±0.1 %, 17.2 ±0.3 % and 15.1 ± 0.1 % respectively. The yield is lower in summer than spring and fall because summer algae have lower receptacle and branches which are characteristic in their reproductive period. (Bertagnolli et al., 2015). The yield of alginate is also affected to different species of Sargassum shown in table 3. The highest yield is from S.vulgare is 30.2 % and the lowest S.dentifulum is 3.3 %. Table 3: Yield % of alginate from different species of Sargassum Species of seaweed % Yield S.vulgare 30.2 S.polycystum 17.1-27.6 S.dentifilium 3.3 S.latifilium 17.7 S.asperifolium 12.4 S.oligocystum 16.3-20.5 S.fuiltans 21.1-24.5 S.filipendula 15.1-17.2 1.6 Biosynthesis of alginate The proposed biosynthesis of alginic acid in Fucus gardineri in the presence of bacteria Pseudomonas is shown in Scheme 2 (Lin and Hassid: 1966). Mannose 1-phosphate reacts with GTP/ H+ in the presence of mannose 1-phosphate guanyl transferase to produce GDP-ÃŽ ±-D-mannose and the by product is diphosphate. GDP-ÃŽ ±-D-mannose in the presence of enzyme GDP-mannose dehydrogenase react with water and NAD+ giving GDP-Mannuronate and finally reacting with GDP/H+ to give alginate. Scheme 2: Biosynthesis of alginate in brown seaweed Fucus gardineri and bacteria (Lin and Hassid; 1966) 1.7 Characterisation of alginate Extracted alginate may be characterised using a variety of techniques such as 1H-NMR, FT-IR, SEC, DSC, CHNS elemental analysis and viscosity. 1.7.1 1H-NMR 1H-NMR spectroscopy is used to determine the main structural pattern and composition of alginate. Structures of alginate are generally constituted of homopolymeric blocks i.e M and G blocks that can be separated by heteropolymeric of MG blocks. The M/G ratio has a strong effect on the physical properties of alginate. Figure 4:1H-NMR Spectra for solution of alginate form S. vulgare in D2O (a) SVLV (S.vulgare low viscosity) and (b) SVHV (S.vulgare High viscosity) (Torres et al., 2007) Figure 4 (a) and (b) show the 1H-NMR spectra of alginate extracted from SLHV and SLHV respectively. Peak I (5.06 ppm) was attributed to anomeric proton (G-1) guluronic acid, peak II (4.7 ppm) show the anomeric proton (M-1) of mannuronic acid and the C-5 alternating blocks (GM-5) which is overlapping each other at this peak and peak III (4.4 ppm) is for the anomeric peak of guluronic acid H-5 (G-5) (Torres et al., 2007). 1.7.2 FT-IR analysis FT-IR spectroscopy is used to determine the functional groups present in the structure of alginate. The FT-IR spectra of the extracted alginate from brown seaweed Turbinaria ornata is given in (figure 5). The bands which is around 800 cm-1 corresponds to the C-H which is ‘out plane’ of the aromatic ring. The peak near 1040 cm-1 is due to the stretching vibrations of C-O bond. The bands at 1230 and 1600 cm-1 corresponding to C-N stretching and N-H bending vibration respectively show the presence of aliphatic amine. The O-H alcoholic groups shows stretching vibrations band at around 3400 cm-1 and C=O stretching vibrations due to the carboxylic acids group present in the structure (Gowtham Sriram et al., 2014). Figure 5: FT-IR spectra of Turbinaria ornata seaweed (Gowtham Sriram et al., 2014) 1.7.3 CHNS elemental analysis Table 4 shows the result for elemental analysis for SVHV and SVLV and both sample proved to have similar results. The nitrogen content is due to the protein found in the seaweed. The % C are 27.7 and 28.1, %H are 5.15 and 4.4 for SVLV and SVHV respectively. The %N (nitrogen) is due to the presence of protein which contains amine groups in seaweed. % S are zero for both SVLV and SVHV (Torres at al., 2007) Table 4 : Analytical data of Sargassum Vulgare alginate Analytical parameter (m/m %) SVLV(S.Vulgare low viscosity SVHV(S.Vulgare high viscosity H 5.15 4.49 C 27.7 28.1 N 0.178 0.164 S 0 0 1.7.4. Viscosity Intrinsic viscosity is the measurement of hydrodynamic volume occupied by complex molecule at unlimited dilution in specific solvents at a given temperature. The intrinsic viscosity depends on the molar mass (Mv), composition and the sequences of M and G residues. Intrinsic viscosity is represented as equation 1 [ÆÅ ¾] = sp/C Equation (1) Where ÆÅ ¾sp is specific viscosity and ÆÅ ¾sp/C is reduced viscosity Another equation of reduced viscosity is defined as ÆÅ ¾red = Equation (2) the intrinsic viscosity was found by the classical method of a plotting straight line graph according to the Huggin’s Equation (3) to which [ÆÅ ¾] y-intercept is obtained. ÆÅ ¾red = [ÆÅ ¾] + kH[ÆÅ ¾]2 C Equation (3) Graph of reduced viscosity versus alginate concentration for SVLV and SVHV sample shown in figure 6 (Torres et al., 2007). Figure 6: Specific viscosity of SVLV (S.Vulgare low viscosity) and SVHV(S.vulgare high viscosity) The viscosities were performed in 0.1 N NaCl at 25 oC for both SVLV and SVHV. Intrinsic viscosites are 6.9 and 4.14 g/dL for SVLV and SVHV respectively (Torres et al., 2007). Table 5 shows different [ÆÅ ¾] for different species of brown seaweed. High vis The intrinsic viscosities of S.Vulgare algiante ranges from (2.5-15.4) g/dL cosity was found SVLV due to high content of MM blocks. Table 5 :Intrinsic viscosity and average molar masses of alginates from different sources(Torres et al., 2007) Alginate source [ÆÅ ¾] (dL/g) Mwa 105 (g/mol) L. hyperborean 6.4 3.05 F. vesiculosus 2.5 1.17 A. nodosum 2.8 1.32 L. japonica 15.4 7.44 S. fluitans 6.30 3.00 S. dentifolium 12.6 6.06 S. asperifolium 15.2 7.34 S. latifolium 8.7 4.16 S. vulgare This study 4.1 1.94 LV (low viscosity ) HV (high viscosity) 6.9 3.30 1.7.4.1. Molar mass Molar mass (Mv) is determined by using the Mark-Houwink equation (4), [ÆÅ ¾] = k Mva - Equation (4) where k and a are empirical coefficients that are dependent on the polymer and the solvent-temperature system used. As for alginate, a value ranges from 0.73 to 1.31 can be acquired depending on the composition of alginate and ionic strength. G-rich alginate has higher a values while lower a values are observed in M-rich alginate which is flexible in nature Proposed empirical relations for [ņ¹] and the weight-average molar mass (Mw) for SVHV and SVLV was computed using equation 4 and the result shown in table 3 [ÆÅ ¾] = 0.023 Mw 0.984 - Equation 4 where [ÆÅ ¾] is given in dL/g and M in kDaltons. The a value used is 0.984 which is different on at specific solvent used. Average molar mass for SVHV was higher than SVLV and similar values to S.fluitans. SVLV has a lower value than other Sargassum species reported in table 5 (Torres et al., 2007). 1.8 Uses of alginate Alginate has many areas of application. For example in food industry and is use to stabilise mixture dispersion and emulsion which increase the viscosity of the gel and forms gel such as jam and jellies. Alginate gel films are also utilized in the food industry as edible films on fruits and vegetables and as coatings designed to improve stored meat quality, industrial and pharmaceutics because the water in alginate has the ability to hold and form gel, to form and stabilise emulsion, textile industry, rubber adhesive paper products, cosmetics and in dental mould (Chennubhotla et al., 2013; Crossingham et al., 2014). Alginate also protects against carcinogenic substances, it clears the digestive system and protects the membrane of the stomach and intestine. Alginate is used in the manufacturing of soft capsules and is consumed as beverage for lowering blood sugar level. Alginate is used in the textile industry as an additive for textile and has also been investigated recently in the composition in vaginal film dosage in pharmaceutical industries and alginate is also used in wound dressings (Paul et al., 2004).

Anorexia Essay examples -- Eating Disorder Health Weight Essays

Anorexia The World Book Encyclopedia defines anorexia as, "one who avoids food for psychological reasons". Most "experts" believe that those who suffer from anorexia are starving themselves to avoid growing into adults. It is also common knowledge among these experts that anorexics "want to gain attention and a sense of being special". People say that anorexia doesn't stop at affecting the victim at hand; instead, it surpasses the anorexic. Which means that anorexia affects the personality of the person; that it branches off to affect other parts of that anorexics life. Body image obsession, self-devotion, attention grabbing, selfishness, are all attributes which keenly describe anorexia in the eyes of the media and most hospital institutions. It is that view point which affect modern societies view eating disorders, and anorexia in particular. Examples can be found in the recent attention paid towards anorexia, most of this well deserved attention, however, is not positive. Sketches on television viewed by the programming of such shows as Saturday Night Live, poke fun at anorexics by making them into exactly what the media prefers them to be, and shows that all the attributes are true. Others like radio legend Howard Stern has games like Guess The Bulimic. It is things like these that make it very difficult for one suffering from an eating disorder to come out and seek help in fear of being hurt. Imagine, if you will, being in lonely, miserable cell. You have the ability to leave at anytime, and there at the door are your family and friends, encouraging you to escape. However, there is a drill bit in your back and every time you try to move, it pushes into your back. You're restrained, restricted from freedom. ... ...xia Nervosa. New York: Warner Books. 1997. 9. Normandi, Carol Emery and Roark, Laurelee. It?s Not About Food. New York: Penguin. 1998. 10. Sandbek, Terence J. Ph. D. The Deadly Diet: Recovering From Anorexia & Bulimia. Oakland: New Harbinger. 1993. 11. Gordon, Richard A. Anorexia and Bulimia: Anatomy of a Social Epidemic. Malden: Blackwell. 1997. 12. Jantz, Gregory L. PH.D. Hope, Help, & Healing for Eating Disorders. Wheaton: Zondervan. 1995. 13. "To Be Thin in China." New York Times 12 December 1999. 14. Rosenthal, Elisabeth. "China's Chic Waistline: Convex to Concave." New York Times 9 December 1999. 15. http://www.something-fishey.org 16. http://WWW.BHS.BERKELEY.K12.CA.US/departments/science/anatomy/anatomy98/eating/html/title.html, 17. http://www.montreux.org/, Montreux Counselling Center web page. 18. www.anred.com/

Development politics-political science

The development of economic thought on proper public policy has followed (if not led) political tides in developing countries. In the expedition for paradigm dominance in economics and sub disciplines such as development economics, neo-classicism appears to have won out.The market leaning thrust of the development â€Å"counter revolt† is now reflected in the conditionality underlying international policy restructuring, that is, the escalating pressure exerted on developing countries to lessen the scope of government intervention, craft more open policies, and the distended use of conditional development assistance as a means of enforcing conformity. This must be interpreted from the viewpoint of a more invasive worldview that has perceived excessive government contribution as becoming more obtrusive in more developed and developing countries alike.Mill defined clearly the policy reform of classical economic liberalism. Thus it is helpful to look at the justified government in terventions listed in his Principles. He begins his chapter ‘Of the Grounds and Limits of the Laissez-faire or Non-interference Principle’ by distinctive types of intervention. The first he calls authoritative intrusion, by which he means legal prohibitions on private actions. Mill argues on moral grounds that such prohibitions must be limited to actions that affect the interests of others.Although even here the obligation of making out a case always deceit on the defenders of legal prohibitions. Scarcely several degree of utility, short of absolute necessity, will rationalize a prohibitory regulation, unless it can also be made to suggest itself to the general principles. The second form of intervention he calls government agency, which exists ‘when a government, instead of issuing a command and enforcing it by penalties, [gives] advice and promulgates information . . . or side by side with their [private agents] arrangements [creates] an agency of its own for li ke purpose'.Thus the government can provide various private and public goods, but without prohibiting competing private supply. The examples Mill gives are banking, education, public works, and medicine. (Mill, 1909) The majority of the government interventions Mill permits belong to this second category. But he warns against their costs: they have great fiscal consequences; they boost the power of the government; all additional function undertaken by government is a fresh job imposed upon a body already charged with duties.So that most things are ill done; much not done at all,' and the consequences of government agency are expected to be counterproductive. In a passage that is prophetic about the structure of numerous public enterprises in developing countries, he writes: The inferiority of government agency, for example, in any of the common operations of industry or commerce, is proved by the fact, that it is hardly ever able to maintain itself in equal competition with individu al agency, where the individuals possess the requisite degree of industrial enterprise, and can command the necessary assemblage of means.All the facilities which a government enjoys of access to information; all the means which it possesses of remunerating, and therefore of commanding the best available talent in the market–are not an equivalent for the one great disadvantage of an inferior interest in the result. (Mill, 1909) On these grounds he concludes: ‘few will dispute the more than sufficiency of these reasons, to throw, in every instance, the burden of making out a strong case, not on those who resist, but on those who recommend, government interference.Laissez-faire, in short, should be the general practice: every departure from it, unless required by some great good, is a certain evil'. (Mill, 1909) But Mill also gives a bridge to the ideas that were later to weaken economic liberalism. The most significant of these was the collective ideal of equality, which was later used to develop a powerful cure to the liberal tradition through Marxism and was executed as state socialism by the Bolsheviks.Thus Mill permits various forms of government agency; numerous of which echo what later came to be accepted as causes of market failure, that prima facie could rationalize appropriate government intervention. Such grounds might be externalities in the stipulation of basic education and public services (like lighthouses), and the require to administer financial institutions against fraud, or to resolve diverse forms of what today would be called Prisoners' Dilemmas. Mill also cited the relief of poverty as another potential reason for government involvement:The question arises whether it is better that they should receive this help exclusively from individuals, and therefore uncertainly and casually, or by systematic arrangements in which society acts through its organ, the state (Mill, 1909). Hence, he argued, the claim to help, . . . created by d estitution, is one of the strongest which can exist; and there is prima facie the amplest reason for making the relief of so extreme an exigency as certain to those who require it, as by any arrangements in society it can be made (Mill, 1909).On the other hand, in all cases of helping, there are two sets of consequences to be considered; the consequences of the assistance, and the consequences of relying on the assistance. The former are generally beneficial, but the latter, for the most part, injurious; so much so, in many cases, as greatly to outweigh the value of the benefit. And this is never more likely to happen than in the very cases where the need of help is the most intense.There are few things for which it is more mischievous that people should rely on the habitual aid of others, than for the means of subsistence, and unhappily there is no lesson which they more easily learn. The problem to be solved is therefore one of peculiar nicety as well as importance; how to give th e greatest amount of needful help, with the smallest encouragement to undue reliance on it (Mill, 1909). This is a discerning summary of both the attractions and consequences of welfare programmes, which has since been authorized empirically.Though, by assigning a larger and endogenous role for the state or public sector in the economy, Keynes set the way for the explanation of development policy in terms of a discretionary, type of economic management at the state level. Thus, planning came to be viewed as a helpful mechanism for overcoming the deficits of the market-price system, and for enlisting public sustain to attain national objectives linked to economic growth, employment formation, and poverty mitigation.It was against this backdrop that the pioneers of contemporary development economics developed Keynesian and Pigovian critiques of the market-price means to advocate the need for planned development. Since development could not be left completely to market forces, governme nt investment was thought to be desired to create â€Å"social transparency capital† as a means of laying the basics for the developing countries to â€Å"take off† on the flight toward self-sustained economic growth.From the viewpoint of Pigovian externalities, the private sector could not be estimated to invest at adequately high levels in the formation of such forms of capital as of increasing returns to scale, technological externalities, and the reality that such investments tend to exhibit the characteristics of public goods. As neo-classical-type adjustment or marginal changes could not effectively address the problem at hand, planning was visualized as a necessary means of developing macroeconomic targets and providing the organizing efforts and consistency requisite for the preferences of society to be recognized.In the economic management of both the more developed and less developed countries, a good deal of controversy has surrounded Keynes's advocacy of mo re state intervention. As he wrote in his Essays in Persuasion, â€Å"I think that capitalism, wisely managed, can probably be made more efficient for attaining economic ends than any alternative system yet in sight, but that in itself, it is in many ways extremely objectionable. Our problem is to work out a social organization which shall be as efficient as possible without offending our notions of a satisfactory way of life. â€Å"Contextually, Keynes' rejection of laissez-faire cannot be construed as an support of the bureaucratic type of planning that was once popular in former socialist countries and the developing world. The issue had surfaced throughout the celebrated Socialist Calculation debate of the interwar years as a means of showing why a decentralized market economy is probable to provide a greater degree of socio-economic coordination than a central one. Specifically, Nobel Laureate Friedrich Hayek (1935) had argued that growing political involvement in the economi c system would ultimately lead to totalitarian dictatorship.Hayekian anti-Keynesianism was to conduct in the idea of a â€Å"dirigiste dogma,† or the potential dangers innate in government solutions to economic and social problems. Yet, it can be contradicted that the â€Å"dogma† was perhaps more pertinent to his disciples than to Keynes himself. As, his analysis of the British economy throughout the thirties was based on assumptions concerning rationally functioning markets. The case for planning was restricted to the concern of a macroeconomic framework in which microeconomic choices could be reasonably orchestrated.The guiding viewpoint was that in the absence of a proper macroeconomic â€Å"enabling† environment, markets will engender the kind of stagnation implied in underemployment equilibrium. At the international level, as a result, the counter-revolution was translated into a revisionist loom to North-South relations based on an extolment of the advant ages of Adam Smith's â€Å"invisible hand† over the difficulties of the â€Å"visible hand† of statism. Contextually, the â€Å"poverty of development economics† has been accredited to the â€Å"policy induced, and thus far from expected distortions formed by irrational dirigisme† (Lal 1983: 1).In his view, conventional development economics was not simply too dogmatic and dirigiste in its orientation, but also sustained by a number of â€Å"fallacies,† including: (i) the belief that the price-market mechanism must be displaced rather than supplemented; (ii) that the efficiency gains from enhanced allocation of given resources are quantitatively irrelevant; (iii) that the case for free trade lacks soundness for developing countries; (iv) that government control of prices, wages, imports, and the allocation of productive assets is a indispensable prerequisite for poverty improvement; and (v) that rational maximizing behavior by economic agents is no t a common phenomenon. Besides advocating a smaller role for the state, Lal also joins hands with Hayek in arguing that nothing must be done about income distribution. â€Å"We cannot . . . identify equity and efficiency as the sole ends of social welfare . . . Other ends such as liberty are also valued. . .. [And] if redistribution entails costs in terms of other social ends which are equally valued it would be foolish to disregard them and concentrate solely on the strictly economic ends† (Lal 1983: 89). This argument can be construed to mean that no matter how considerable the welfare gains that are probable to accrue from redistributive policies, no liberty is ever worth trading or forfeiting. Besides the ideological tunnel vision that lies at the heart of such a claim, it can be argued that the potential of attaining authentic development depend as much on the sensitivity of the state to distributive justice as on the competence and locative goals stressed in neoclassica l economics or the â€Å"liberty† that is the focus of â€Å"new† classical political economy.Peter Bauer, another inner figure in the counter-revolution, challenges the major variations in economic structure and levels of developmental attainment among countries must be explained in terms of equivalent differences in resource endowments and individualistic orientations. This viewpoint rests on a basic belief that the inherent potentials of individuals can be drawn out throughout the play of market forces. Contextually, he states (1981: 8s), â€Å"the precise causes of differences in income and wealth are complex and various. . . . [I]n substance such differences result from people's widely differing attitudes and motivations, and also to some extent from chance circumstances. Some people are gifted, hardworking, ambitious, and enterprising, or had farsighted parents, and they are more likely to become well off. â€Å"In turn, such attributes are measured accountable for the East Asian success stories, or a demonstration of the legality and correctness of the individualistic free market approach to economic development. In more general terms, the achievement of these countries is interpreted as a substantiation of the domain assumptions of neo-classical economic theory: that competent growth can be promoted by relying on free markets, getting prices to replicate real scarcities, liberalizing trade policy, and authorizing international price signals to be more generously transmitted to the domestic economy. On the whole idea, therefore, is that market-oriented systems with private incentives lean to show a superior performance in terms of growth attainment.In general, critics of the â€Å"dirigiste dogma† such as Hayek, Lal, and Bauer assert that, compared to countries in the more developed division of the world, most governments in the less developed sector lack the type of knowledge and data required for rational intervention, are often less democratic, and often exhibit motives that are at inconsistency with Keynesian-type or structuralist objectives of growth with redeployment and full employment. The reaction is that markets in both sectors of the world are less liberated than is usually supposed, lack the capability for making rational decisions, and particularly in the developing world, not always adequately organized to effectively convey the essential price signals. There is numerous element of truth in both the anti-Keynesian and Keynesian/structuralist perspectives. Where the balance is lastly drawn becomes an issue of ideology and slanted judgment rather than scientific economic analysis. In any event, the path followed by any particular country is typically constrained by its historical and socio-cultural situation.In addition, the obstruction of local forms of industrial development led to the configuration of a modern middle class of â€Å"petit bourgeoisie† comprising army officials, governmen t bureaucrats, civil servants, teachers, and related cadres. In certain regions and countries, they integrated small traders, â€Å"progressive farmers,† â€Å"middle peasants,† and similar groups that come to obtain increasing importance in the absence of meaningful industrialization. They were to become the prime advocates of state capitalism and other forms of â€Å"national developmentalism. † In conclusion, approximately all states in the developing world are domineering in varying degrees. Several are classic cases of the predator or rentier state in which everything is part of a ruler's individual fiefdom and high offices are up for sale to the highest bidders.There are a few cases, yet, where governments have established some measure of institutional consistency in the detection of collective development goals. Needless to say, the situation diverges from one historical or political framework to another. The majority of developing countries have no subst itute but to rely on a strong and focused government to map out a strategic development way. The obstinate theoretical and practical question relics why different types of interventionist states with command over similar resources and instruments of control tend to show extremely conflicting development orientations and end up on dissimilar development paths.The consensual view is that the great majority have remained â€Å"regulatory† or â€Å"obstructionist† and are far back on the road to becoming real â€Å"development states† that portray the vision and capability needed to promote necessary development goals. Achievement of the latter depending not so much on the dimension of the government apparatus but more on its quality and efficiency. This has been established by the development experience of Nordic and East Asian countries, which have been thriving in meshing interventionist schemes with the market mechanism, as well as in cultivation resilient coali tions of modernizing interests in the structuring of national development agendas. Traditionally, such coalitions have resultant their integrity, credibility, and political legality from the nation's collective aspirations.The centralization of decision making has been efficiently combined with flexibility in dealing with technical and market conditions. Goals and policies have been continually interpreted and reinterpreted on the basis of organizational networks between party organizations, public officials, and private entrepreneurs. This is not meant to propose that what has worked in the flourishing corporatist models of the Nordic countries and the Sinitic world, particularly Japan, can or should be replicated in the late-developing world. In the first place, the social and cultural homogeneity in both regions have made the counterfeiting of a political consensus much easier.Second, the tensions that continuously arise between the spoken interests of organized classes, pressure groups, and the state influential responsible for policy formulation and implementation cannot be resolved in a context free or institutionally neutral manner. The state remains a â€Å"strategic actor in the game of mixed conflict and cooperation amongst other groups† (Bardhan 1988: 65). Under the conditions, the nature of developmental outcomes eventually depends on its ability to determine conflicts and make compromises in an open political milieu. The directness of the political process determines the nature and efficacy of the development delivery system and the degree to which consensual relationships can be recognized and nurtured with labor, business, people's organizations, and the rustic sector.

Ethics †Accountant Essay

?List 3 lessons about ethics from this article. 1. The first one is the most powerful lesson learned from practicing ethical conduct during Boisjoly’s 27-year engineering career in the aerospace industry, is that them, as individuals, become the result-ant sum of each ethical confrontational event as experienced from the beginning of their careers. 2. The second lesson is what he learned was to never delay informing superiors of bad news so he could protect his integrity with peers. 3. The third lesson is the continuous lesson learned from these personal experiences, is that the good guys can win. Even though we lose, we also have an influence in the outcome of the war. Which of the lessons listed above are relevant to someone entering the accounting profession? In my point of view, the third lesson, which talked about the good guys can win, is relevant to someone entering the accounting profession. The ‘Voice Choice’ is similar with accounting profession, because we need to assist on the truth. In this lesson also mentions accountability was usually applied to kill the messenger bringing the bad news, rather than punish the wrongdoer. In the accounting profession, the responsibility is also need to display the information not to punish someone. Therefore, these lessons help the author learned some ideas. Moreover, this idea could help him fit in the accounting profession. Boisjoly cites the following three types of behavior that are used by those confronted with an ethical dilemma: Exit, Voice, and Loyalty. Develop a hypothetical case involving external reporting that would cause an accountant (either a corporate accountant or an auditor) to choose between those three types of behavior. Here I will create a hypothetical case, and this case involves external reporting that will cause an accountant. This story was happened in China. A company has three accountants. They are Lily, Sam and Jack. For the record, this company just changed the manger. The manger wants to fire some employees who are not qualified with their stations. Moreover, the supervisor of accounting is available now. The three accountants do not worry about get fired, but all of them want to strive for the accounting supervisor. Therefore, they tried to do well on their own jobs, paid more attention to themselves’ personal image and interpersonal relationship. One day, the manager took some blank notes to Sam’s office, because he wanted to submit an expenses account. However, Sam refused the manger’s requirement because the blank notes were break rules. Then the manger went to Lily’s office, and asked for the same thing. The difference is Lily wanted to ingratiate the manager, so she reimbursed to the manger. Another day, the manger did the same thing to Jack. Jack let the manager go back to office at first, and he would send these notes back to manager’s office later. After that, he returned back the blank notes, and he did not approve the requirement. One week later, Lily was fired, Sam was still there, and Jack became the accountant supervisor. Someone asked manger why, the manager answered that â€Å"we cannot hire a person who do not follow the principles, We should reuse the people who either follow the principle or the way of methods. † Based on this story, we analyze Lily is related to ‘Loyalty’, Sam is related to the ‘Voice†, because he stands up for ethical principles.